Should be there a specific subject that focus on form?

By Sudirman

Implementation of language learning keeps changing from time to time in line with the changes in the learning approach and or method adopted by the curriculum which is being used. One thing that characterizes the change is the existence of grammar. There are two contradictory opinions on how grammar should be taught; the first opinion argues that grammar should be taught explicitly and separately, while the second one claims that grammar should be taught integrated with the context. The latter seems more acceptable in recent language pedagogy classrooms. This essay aims to support the idea of the second opinion.

Nunan (2001) claims that there is a close link between grammar and context in real communication, hence, the only way to gain appropriate grammatical choices is that grammar should be taught based on the context and purpose of the communication. In addition, he says that students will find difficulties to understand why and how alternative forms exist to express different communicative meanings if they do not have the opportunity to study grammar in context. Nunan also says that teachers need an approach how to help the students learn to form structures correctly and know how to apply them, therefore he strongly suggests an organic approach to teaching grammar rather than a linear model.

In accordance with Nunan’s (2001) idea, Long (2001) also suggests that grammar should not be taught as an isolated subject yet it should be embedded within the context. He furthermore claims that the best way to study a language is not by treating is an object of study but rather as a means of communication. He points out three benefits of teaching grammar integrated with the context; first, it enhances the rate of learning speed, second, it affects the acquisition processes which will be beneficial for long term-accuracy, and third, it shows that it helps to increase the ultimate achievement level.

In addition, Pineman (1986 as cited in Ellis, 2002) believes that instruction can only promote language acquisition if the inter-language is close to the point of natural context. In other words, learners have their inbuilt syllabus and they can follow it as long as it connects to the students’ context which students are familiar with. From this point, when a teacher recognizes the problem of teaching grammatical structures for unplanned language use, the solution is to ensure that students practice new structures in a variety of contexts to help them internalize and master them. Ellis (2002) argues that, traditionally, grammar teaching methods are concerned with content. The content can be transmitted via explicit descriptions and skills which are able to be developed through controlled practice. Ellis suggests that grammar teaching should be rethought to allow learners to discover grammar rules for themselves, and to notice how grammar features are through input processing rather than production practice.

I argue that grammatical competence is very important and a compulsory element in developing communicative competence. However, grammar does not need to be taught separately, grammar can be learned and integrated into language skills learning. Grammar should not be learned only to gain grammar mastery, but it should be learned to comprehend and produce appropriate speaking and writing communication. In my context, in teaching English in Indonesia, grammar is best to be taught embedded to teach the four language skills, in addition, since English is a foreign language to Indonesian students, it will be worthwhile if the portion grammar aspect is added a bit more. I see, in recent curricula, that teaching grammar is very limited.

References:

Ellis, R. (2002). Methodological options in grammar teaching materials.  New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classrooms. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah.

Long, M. (2001). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology.  In CN. Candlin, & N. Mercer (Eds.), English language teaching in its social context (pp. 180-190) London: Routledge.

Nunan, D. (2001). Teaching grammar in context. In CN. Candlin, & N. Mercer (Eds.), English language teaching in its social context (pp. 191-200) London: Routledge.

Read More

Teaching Writing and Reading: What approaches should be used and what aspects to be considered?

By Sudirman

Reading and writing are two language skills that influence each other. Although reading is considered a receptive skill and writing a productive skill, both of them require literacy ability and this aspect makes them more or less the same and evokes mutual influences. What approaches and or methods should be used and what aspects to be considered in teaching these two skills are still debatable. In this essay, although not perfect, the writer tries to provide the answers.

Cazden (as cited in Gee, 2004) states that some people, advocates of Whole Language, even argue that reading ability is attained naturally in the same way as one’s native language acquisition process. Thus one does not need to learn reading with a specific approach/method, because s/he will get this ability naturally as s/he grows up. However, Gee (2004) strongly argues against this contention, Gee (2004) claims that learning to read is not a natural process, because it is not a biologically supported process as people learn to walk. Gee (2004) states that there are different priorities to be mastered before learning reading. Traditionalists believed that it should start with building phonemic awareness, then phonic awareness, next practice, and last work on comprehension skills. Other educators stress on making meaning and Gee himself is concerned with literacy. In addition, Gee (2004) agrees that there are three major learning processes, they are; natural, instructed, and cultural process, but learning to read works best with the cultural process. From this point of view, Gee’s (2004) advice is that language curriculum should include the community of the school, students’ motivation as well as all factors which underpin language and literacy learning. 

Burns (2001), whose focus was on writing, suggests the application of the genre approach in teaching writing. Her suggestion is based on her study of using systematic linguistics and notions of genre. She conducted training and in the end, it shows that the participants have been able to write a practically effective text approximating the genre. She also argues that as long as teachers and students are given the opportunity to explore language use within a framework of social and cultural purpose, the systematic-functional approaches will fit well with communicative language teaching. Burns (2004) also suggests three stages of the teaching-learning process: (1) modeling, which involved discussion of the cultural and social purpose of the genre, (2) joining negation of text, which involved the teachers and students in a joint construction to work on the same genre. (3) Independent construction, which comprised students and teachers discussing and revising their work together.

Gibbon (2002) suggests integrating language and content. It is aimed to develop second language learning hand in hand with new curriculum knowledge. Gibbon asserts that learning a language is not a linear process; it involves the students in developing language in an increasing range of contexts and so learning a language will be much more meaningful when it relates to the real context of language use. She, furthermore, claims that there are two different contexts in language; culture context and situation context. Cultural context is when speakers of a particular culture share their assumptions and expectation so that they have a clear idea of what to do dealing with that particular culture, such as how to greet someone and how to order a meal in a restaurant. Next, situation context is when a language is used on a particular occasion, for instance; to whom we speak, what we talk, and the spoken or written language we use.

In relation to teaching reading and writing skills, firstly, I would like to tell my experience and my teaching context. Recently, in Indonesia, I see that reading and teaching are taught based on genre. However, I was not taught this kind of approach at all. It was last year when I began to teach, and the students were about to face the final examination, since then I was requested by the principal to give additional classes. The principal gave me some questions from the previous final examination and I saw it was full of text. It was easy for me to answer when the questions were about vocabulary and grammar, but I was very confused when the questions were about the types of the text, whether it is narrative, recount, analytical exposition, and so forth. Then I saw the students’ textbook, and I realize that everything was changed from what I have learned before. Secondly, to conclude, I think there are some aspects to be considered in teaching reading and writing, regardless of traditionalists' or modernists’ views, they are; students’ literacy, meaning, and language form. Pertaining to the methodology, I agree with the application of both genres based and integrated based. I see, in my teaching context, the teaching methodology is more on a genre-based approach but not much on an integrated approach.

References

Burns, A. (2001). Genre-based approaches to writing and beginning adult ESL learners. In CN. Candlin, & N. Mercer (Eds.), English language teaching in its social context (pp. 200-207) London: Routledge.

Gee, J. P. (2004). Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling. London: Routledge.

Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning: Teaching second language learners in the mainstream classroom.  New Hampshire: Heinemann, Portsmouth.

Read More

Do socio-cultural and historical aspects influence second language learning?

By Sudirman

Melbourne 2013

There are, of course, many factors that may affect second language teaching. They are categorized as internal or external factors. The latter are such as aptitude, attitude, students' belief and learning style. The former are those coming from outside of the learners' personality, such as an economic, cultural, historical, and political aspect of the background. However, in this essay, I tend to elaborate only on two aspects of external factors, namely cultural and historical aspects. In addition, we cannot generalize the effect of these aspects to the same degree for all countries; the effect must vary from country to country.

Mercer (2001) convinces that the application of sociocultural perspective has an important impact on the field of educational endeavor, although she claims that the application of this perspective is quite new to be brought to modern language pedagogy. Mercer (2001) furthermore explains that teachers who have a deep understanding and awareness of the sociocultural aspects and the use of language as a pedagogic tool will be more successful to improve their curriculum-related learning and also will be easier for them to convince their students that a language is a tool for constructing knowledge. The relationship between language and socio-culture is very close and they cannot be split from each other.

Another academic, Canagarajah (2001), sees the close relationship between English education and British colonialism in Srilanka. Since the British colonized island of Ceylon, English become very important to provide socioeconomic advantages for Native Lankans, and this factor causes most Sri Lankan to become English-speaking bilinguals. However, based on his study, Canagarajah (2001) observes that the language teaching method/approach applied in Sri Lanka is mostly grammar-based, product-oriented, and teacher-centered. He strongly argues against this strategy, and he claims that focusing on grammar learning will detach students from the language and the course and even will prevent the students from active use of the language. This situation, although will be useful in helping them to pass an examination, will lead the students to be far from cultural and social language aspects. Cultural and social aspects should not be split from the language, he confirms.

Shameem (2000) tries to relate the first language and second language of ESL learners. He argues that first language maintenance is very important in learning a second language and its importance is not only for social justice but also for long-term cognitive and educational benefits. Therefore, the identification of students' language and cultural background will help them to address their particular English education needs to be addressed more appropriately. Also, it will help them to maintain their first language and culture. Studying language other than one's first language should not cause subtraction to their first language, but it should facilitate additive rather than subtractive.

In Indonesia, historical factors influence much toward language education much. Since Indonesia was colonized by Dutch and Japan, at the beginning of Indonesia's independence, these two languages strongly affected Indonesia's education. However, the Indonesian government stipulated not to use these two languages as the national language, and also they are not compulsory subjects in Indonesian schools. The Indonesian government decided English as the first foreign language to be taught in Indonesian schools, but of course, this historical factor caused Indonesian people to find difficulty in learning English compare to Sri Lanka for example as stated by Canagarajah (2001) above or other countries which were colonized by British. From a cultural perspective, Indonesia comprises of so many ethnic groups with different cultures. Some people, especially old age people, worry about the negative effects of foreign cultures if we learn other languages. In this case, Shameem's (2000) opinion above can be a solution because learning other languages should not subtract one's first culture and language. From the above explanation, I can conclude that socio-cultural and historical aspects do influence second language learning.

 

References

Canagarajah, S. (2001). Critical ethnography of a Sri Lankan classroom: Ambiguities in student opposition to reproduction through ESOL. In C. N. Candlin, & N. Mercer (Eds.), English language teaching in its social context (pp. 208-227) London: Routledge.

Mercer, N. (2001). Language for teaching a language. In C. N. Candlin, & N. Mercer (Eds.), English language teaching in its social context (pp. 243-258.) London: Routledge.

Shameem, N. (2000). Factors affecting language gain and loss in young immigrants and the case of the Wellington Indo-Fijians. Prospect, 15(2), 48-64.

Read More